Farmer responses to an input subsidy and co-learning program: intensification, extensification, specialization, and diversification?

Abstract Sustainable intensification aims to increase production and improve livelihoods of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. Many farmers, however, are caught a vicious cycle low productivity lack incentives invest agricultural inputs. Moving towards sustainable therefore requires support such as input subsidies learning about new options through, for instance, co-learning approaches. Yet is not straightforward developments often diverge from the envisaged pathways: extensification may occur instead specialization diversification. Understanding farmers’ responses knowledge lacking. Our overarching aim was this understanding, order better future pathways development farming. Over five seasons, we compared western Kenya taking part novel program developed, which included provision an voucher, with who only received voucher. We also assessed differences before during program. used diverse indicators that were related different pathways. Farmer mainly result Farmers increased maize yields (intensification) area (specialization) self-sufficiency. Increased farm areas combination relatively N application rates pointed coupled risk soil mining. Diversification by increasing soybean groundnut share facilitated integrated approach, thereby supported complex management changes. results highlight difficulty enabling yield increases, while meeting environmental economic goals. The diversity farmer constraints beyond level underlined importance wider socio-economic addition at level.